Courtesy : Bachelor of Science Microbiology (CBM) – Chemistry, Botany, Microbiology Book

Education

A multivolume Latin dictionary in the University of Graz Library in Austria.

Throughout European history, an education in the classics was considered crucial for those who wished to join literate circles. This also was true in the United States where many of the nation’s Founders obtained a classically-based education in grammar schools or from tutors. Admission to Harvard in the Colonial era required that the applicant “Can readily make and speak or write true Latin prose and has skill in making verse . . .” Latin Study and the classics were emphasized in American secondary schools and colleges well into the Antebellum era.

Instruction in Latin is an essential aspect. In today’s world, a large number of Latin students in the US learn from Wheelock’s Latin: The Classic Introductory Latin Course, Based on Ancient Authors. This book, first published in 1956, was written by Frederic M. Wheelock, who received a PhD from Harvard University. Wheelock’s Latin has become the standard text for many American introductory Latin courses. # ISO certification in India

The Living Latin movement attempts to teach Latin in the same way that living languages are taught, as a means of both spoken and written communication. It is available in Vatican City and at some institutions in the US, such as the University of Kentucky and Iowa State University. The British Cambridge University Press is a major supplier of Latin textbooks for all levels, such as the Cambridge Latin Course series. It has also published a subseries of children’s texts in Latin by Bell & Forte, which recounts the adventures of a mouse called Minimus.# ISO certification in India

Latin and Ancient Greek at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina, 2014.

In the United Kingdom, the Classical Association encourages the study of antiquity through various means, such as publications and grants. The University of Cambridge, the Open University, a number of prestigious independent schools, for example Eton, Harrow, Haberdashers’ Aske’s Boys’ School, Merchant Taylors’ School, and Rugby, and The Latin Programme/Via Facilis, a London-based charity, run Latin courses. In the United States and in Canada, the American Classical League supports every effort to further the study of classics. Its subsidiaries include the National Junior Classical League (with more than 50,000 members), which encourages high school students to pursue the study of Latin, and the National Senior Classical League, which encourages students to continue their study of the classics into college. The league also sponsors the National Latin Exam. Classicist Mary Beard wrote in The Times Literary Supplement in 2006 that the reason for learning Latin is because of what was written in it. # ISO certification in India

Official status

Latin was or is the official language of European states:

•  Hungary – Latin was an official language in the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11th century to the mid 19th century, when Hungarian became the exclusive official language in 1844. The best known Latin language poet of Croatian-Hungarian origin was Janus Pannonius.
•  Croatia – Latin was the official language of Croatian Parliament (Sabor) from the 13th to the 19th century (1847). The oldest preserved records of the parliamentary sessions (Congregatio Regni totius Sclavonie generalis) – held in Zagreb (Zagabria), Croatia – date from 19 April 1273. An extensive Croatian Latin literature exists. Latin is still used on Croatian coins on even years.
•  Poland, Kingdom of Poland – officially recognised and widely used between the 10th and 18th centuries, commonly used in foreign relations and popular as a second language among some of the nobility.# ISO certification in India

Phonology

Main article: Latin phonology and orthography

The ancient pronunciation of Latin has been reconstructed; among the data used for reconstruction are explicit statements about pronunciation by ancient authors, misspellings, puns, ancient etymologies, the spelling of Latin loanwords in other languages, and the historical development of Romance languages. # ISO certification in India

Consonants

The consonant phonemes of Classical Latin are as follows:

	Labial	Dental	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
plain	labial
Plosive	voiced	b	d		ɡ	ɡʷ
voiceless	p	t		k	kʷ
Fricative	voiced		(z)
voiceless	f	s				h
Nasal	m	n		(ŋ)
Rhotic		r
Approximant		l	j		w

/z/ was not native to Classical Latin. It appeared in Greek loanwords starting around the first century BC, when it was probably pronounced [z] initially and doubled [zz] between vowels, in contrast to Classical Greek [dz] or [zd]. In Classical Latin poetry, the letter ⟨Z⟩ between vowels always counts as two consonants for metrical purposes. The consonant ⟨b⟩ usually sounds as [b]; however, when ⟨t⟩ or ⟨s⟩ follows ⟨b⟩ then it is pronounced as in [pt] or [ps]. Further, consonants do not blend together. So, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, and ⟨th⟩ are all sounds that would be pronounced as [kh], [ph], and [th]. In Latin, ⟨q⟩ is always followed by the vowel ⟨u⟩. Together they make a [kw] sound. # ISO certification in India

In Old and Classical Latin, the Latin alphabet had no distinction between uppercase and lowercase, and the letters ⟨J U W⟩ did not exist. In place of ⟨J U⟩, ⟨I V⟩ were used, respectively; ⟨I V⟩ represented both vowels and consonants. Most of the letterforms were similar to modern uppercase, as can be seen in the inscription from the Colosseum shown at the top of the article.

The spelling systems used in Latin dictionaries and modern editions of Latin texts, however, normally use ⟨j u⟩ in place of Classical-era ⟨i v⟩. Some systems use ⟨j v⟩ for the consonant sounds /j w/ except in the combinations ⟨gu su qu⟩ for which ⟨v⟩ is never used.# ISO certification in India

Some notes concerning the mapping of Latin phonemes to English graphemes are given below:

Latin grapheme	Latin phoneme	English examples
⟨c⟩, ⟨k⟩	[k]	Always as k in sky (/skaɪ/)
⟨t⟩	[t]	As t in stay (/steɪ/)
⟨s⟩	[s]	As s in say (/seɪ/)
⟨g⟩	[ɡ]	Always as g in good (/ɡʊd/)
[ŋ]	After ⟨n⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/)
⟨n⟩	[n]	As n in man (/mæn/)
[ŋ]	Before ⟨c⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨g⟩, as ng in sing (/sɪŋ/)
⟨l⟩	[l]	When doubled ⟨ll⟩ and before ⟨i⟩, as “light L”, [l̥] in link ([l̥ɪnk]) (l exilis)
[ɫ]	In all other positions, as “dark L”, [ɫ] in bowl ([boʊɫ]) (l pinguis)
⟨qu⟩	[kʷ]	Similar to qu in squint (/skwɪnt/)
⟨u⟩	[w]	Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after ⟨g⟩ and ⟨s⟩, as /w/ in wine (/waɪn/)
⟨i⟩	[j]	Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as y (/j/) in yard (/jɑɹd/)
[ij]	“y” (/j/), in between vowels, becomes “i-y”, being pronounced as parts of two separate syllables, as in capiō (/kapiˈjo:/)
⟨x⟩	[ks]	A letter representing ⟨c⟩ + ⟨s⟩: as x in English axe (/æks/)

In Classical Latin, as in modern Italian, double consonant letters were pronounced as long consonant sounds distinct from short versions of the same consonants. Thus the nn in Classical Latin annus “year” (and in Italian anno) is pronounced as a doubled /nn/ as in English unnamed. (In English, distinctive consonant length or doubling occurs only at the boundary between two words or morphemes, as in that example.) # ISO certification in India